Towards Tracking Circular Construction Supply Chains: Data Carrier Performance in Realistic Experiments

Abstract: Due to the need for effective track and trace systems to enable circular construction supply chains (CCSC), this study evaluated the performance of radio-frequency identification (RFID), near-field communication (NFC) chips, quick response (QR) codes and Direct Product Marking (DPM) in identifying and reading material information. Key metrics – detection speed, error rates, and user experience – were assessed and gave consideration to the differential impacts of controlled and uncontrolled experimental conditions. Findings indicate that, relative to DPM, RFID and NFC offered improved usability and reduced reading times, with minimal differences in error rates; results were strongly influenced by usability and experimental context.